 I
have always been taught that to be a "JEW" is not ethnicity, but religion.
Is this true or not? If so or not so, can I have a short explanation?
I understand that those members of the tribe of Judah were referred
to as "Jews"....but in reality, aren't all of the twelve tribes "Jews"?
(question submitted by Natalie Thompson)
 In
the Rabbinic tradition anyone who is the child of a Jewish mother or
has converted to Judaism is considered a Jew. Since birth can determine
Jewish identity, Jewishness can be considered an ethnic identity.
On the other hand,
the possibility of conversion opens the Jewish community to people of
all ethnic origins. Therefore, there cannot be a definitive resolution
of the issue whether Jewishness is an ethnicity or a religion. The extent
to which a born Jew who has converted to another religion retains his
Jewish identity is a matter of controversy. The
20th-century thinker Mordechai Kaplan offered a solution by referring
to Judaism as a "civilization" which encompasses ethnicity,
religion, culture, rituals, and value system. The
word "Jew" is derived from the Hebrew "Yehudi" which did originally
refer to members of the tribe of Judah. When the kingdom of Israel divided
after the death of Solomon, the southern kingdom, ruled by the descendants
of David, was called "Judah," since this tribe was the most important.
With the disappearance of northern kingdom of Israel and the exile of
its population, Judah alone remained. During
the Babylonian exile, the Judeans retained their group identity and
name "Yehudi" came into common use for the entire community after their
return to Jerusalem. Biblical evidence of this usage appears in the
book of Esther where Mordecai is referred to as being from the tribe
of Benjamin (Esther 2.5) and also as Mordecai, the Jew (Esther 10:3).[back]
I'm
considering conversion to Judaism, but there are no synagogues anywhere
near, so no Rabbis to advise me. What should I do in the absence of
any conversion classes, etc.? (question submitted
by Stacy Hurtt)
Conversion
to Judaism requires study and a ceremony conducted by a Rabbi or Rabbinical
Court. Since there are no Rabbis or synagogues in your area, perhaps
you will be able to find assistance through the Conversion to Judaism
Home page http://www.convert.org/.
[back]
I
am doing a study on Creation. I have been told that the Masoretic (traditional
Jewish) text of the Hebrew Bible has a revi'a between Genesis
1:1 and 2. As the story goes, the revia is a punctuation mark which
tells the reader that a pause in the narrative has occurred. Any info
would be greatly appreciated. (submitted by Len R. Thies)
Revi'a
is one of the 29 signs used to punctuate the Masoretic (traditional
Jewish) text of the Hebrew Bible. These signs are placed on the words
and punctuate the verse by dividing the words into groups. Every verse
is divided into two major subsections and each subsection is further
divided in two and so on, until there are no more than three words in
any subdivision. There is a hierarchy of conjunctive (joining) and disjunctive
(separating) signs. Each disjunctive sign has specific conjunctive signs
associated with it.
Revi'a is
a disjunctive sign of the third level (out of four). The first word
of Genesis 2:1 is marked with a revi'a, without any of its associated
conjunctives. This indicates that the word V'ha-aretz -- the
earth -- is a one-word phrase. The separation between the two verses
Genesis 1:1 and 1:2 is no different or more significant than the separation
between any other two verses in the same paragraph. [back]
Where
in the Torah does it tell of the creation of Gentiles? When Moses tells
of the creation of Adam and Eve and their children, he assumes they
were Hebrews. The world's population was the result of Noah and his
sons. Are we not all Hebrews? (submitted by Russell
Odell)
The
Torah does not assume that Adam, Eve and Noah were Hebrews. The Hebrews
are seen as integral part of human civilization and therefore, the
early chapters of Genesis tell the universal history of humankind,
which was undivided until the Tower of Babel (Genesis 11:1-9). Recognizing
that all humankind is descended from Noah, later Jewish tradition
derives from these early chapters seven moral laws that apply to all
people — "The Noahide Laws." [back]
When Adam was banished from the garden of Eden does
the Scripture indicate that Eve "followed" Adam out of Eden.
The point being, was Adam banished then Eve followed because she was
"provided" as Adam's companion? Or were both banished? (submitted
by Jeff Capel)
This
is a very interesting question. We have checked many sources and commentaries
and none of them deal with your question, either directly or indirectly.
Although the Hebrew does talk of only Adam (in the masculine singular)
being banished, it stands to reason that this punishment applied to
both Adam and Eve since they were both actively involved in the transgression.
[back]
Where
can I find information on Lilith, the first women created. I need to
be able to confirm the existence biblically. I once read, though I can't
recall where, that Lilith was nephilim, or maybe even a fallen
angel. Have you any idea where this idea came from? I also heard she
was the wife of Lucifer, is that true? (questions
submitted by Debra Davis and Lilly)
The existence of Lilith, as the first woman created, is an extra-biblical
idea. Lilith (Lilit in Hebrew) was the ancient (possibly Sumerian) name
for a goddess. The word "lilith" does occur once in the Bible,
in Isaiah 34.14, where its meaning is not completely certain.
Because of the similarity
of the name Lilith to the Hebrew word laylah (night), the name
came to be interpreted as reference to a nocturnal spirit. In Talmudic
legend she is described as the first wife of Adam, before Eve, and as
the mother of demons born from this union. In
a 9th-centry narrative cycle (the Alphabet of Ben-Sira) and in subsequent
literature (particular mystical) Lilith is portrayed as demon, sexual
temptress, the wife of angels and demons, "half-woman, half fire."
Over the centuries Lilith became a central figure of evil in popular
and folkloristic tales. A popular Jewish feminist magazine is entitled
Lilith. [back]
What
is the proper method of undressing and dressing the Torah during a Friday
evening service at a Reform Temple? (question
submitted by Elissa J. Pazyk)
In addition to the traditional Saturday morning Torah reading practiced
in all synagogues, many Reform synagogues also read from the Torah on
Friday evening. JHOM has consulted with a local Reform Rabbi who informed
us that Reform synagogues use the same method used for undressing and
dressing the Torah during a Friday evening service that is used in other
synagogues and on other occasions.
After the Torah is removed from the ark, it is brought to the reading
desk. The ornaments are usually removed before it is laid on the table.
When the scroll is rested on the desk, one person tilts it by lower
the handles at the bottom so that the upper end is lifted above the
table. Another person removes the mantle. The Torah is then rested on
the table and the belt opened. The ornaments, mantle and belt are placed
in a designated location and the pointer is left on the reading desk
for the reader's use.
After the reading, it is customary to lift the Torah so that the congregation
can see the writing, although some Reform congregations do not follow
this practice. The person who lifts the Torah, then sits down, holding
it in a vertical position on his/her knees. Another person rolls it
closed as tightly as possible. It is customary to place the top disk
on the Genesis side above that on the Deuteronomy side.
Then, the belt is fastened, making sure that the buckle or knot is in
front of the Torah (otherwise it is difficult to open the next time).
The mantle is then placed on the Torah (again, making sure that it is
facing forward in relationship to the scroll). Finally, the pointer,
breast-plate and crown (or bells) are put in place and the Torah is
ready to return to the ark. Please
note that all of this applies only to Ashkenazi-style torah scrolls.
In Sephardic synagogues the scrolls are enclosed in wooden casing that
is not removed. [back]
Why
is the Torah read with a yad (pointer)? When did this custom
begin? (question submitted by Dan Ben Ari)
The
Torah is read with a yad or pointer in order to mark the reader's
place while preserving the parchment's holiness by not touching it with
human hands. This custom also keeps the scroll clean and prevents oils
and dirt that can accumulate on a human finger from wearing away the
letters. The yad which usually ends with the shape of a small
hand with an extended finger is often ornamented with crowns and other
symbols associated with royalty. The practice of not touching the Torah
scroll is referred to in the Talmud. The earliest Torah pointers currently
documented date to the 16th century although it is likely that they
were used during earlier periods as well. [back]
What is inside a mezuzah? What is the appropriate way to install
on a entry door? (question submitted by Jim Koss)
Literally, mezuzah is the Hebrew word for a door-post but it also
refers to a small, usually decorative, container that Jews attach to their
door-posts in fulfillment of the commandment to "inscribe them on
the doorposts of your house and on your gates." The container contains
a parchment on which the verses Deuteronomy 6:4-9, 11:13-2 have been written
by a specially trained scribe. (See JHOM edition - Letters).
A mezuzah is hung on the upper third of the right-hand door-post
(when entering the room). In the Middle Ages, there was a disagreement
whether the mezuzah should be hung vertically or horizontally.
As a compromise, it is customary to attach the mezuzah on an angle
with its top facing inward. [back]
When
the Messiah comes who will he be? Is he God? Or is he separate from God?
(question submitted by Sherri)
In Jewish tradition, the Messiah will be a descendent of King David. The
early development of this idea is traced in our JHOM issue on David.
Although views vary regarding the Messiah's exact identity and role, all
Jewish thinkers agree that the Messiah is NOT God, since God has no form
or body. [back]
Where
can I find out more about Maimonides' steps in or hierarchy of ethical
behavior? (submitted by Cynthia J. Fazzini)
Maimonides
eight levels of tzedekah (charity) are as follows:
1.
The highest level of charity is giving a gift, a loan, or a job
so that another person can become financially independent.
2. The
next level is giving anonymously - in such a way that the donor
does not know the identity of the recipient, nor the recipient that
of the donor.
3. Where
the donor knows the identity of the recipient, but the recipient
does not know the donor (thus sparing the recipient embarrassment).
4. Where
the recipient knows the donor, but the donor does not know the recipient
(since the donor cannot be thanked, the giving is with purer motives).
5. Giving
money directly to a poor person before he asks.
6. Giving
after the needy person asks.
7. Giving
less than the proper sum, but cheerfully.
8. And
the lowest level (yet still better than nothing)... is giving begrudgingly.
I
am interested in obtaining information regarding the tithe of ancient
Israel. Where would one go to obtain information? What was the tithe?
Is it akin to taxation? Specifically reference how modern Jews consider
the tithe. [submitted by Steven King]
Tithes
in ancient Israel were the tenth part of one's annual income. During
biblical period, detailed laws were promulgated concerning the tithing
of agricultural produce and livestock. There was the first tithe given
to the Levites (Numbers 18:24), the second title taken to Jerusalem
and consumed there (Lev. 27:30-31 and Deut. 14:22-26), and the poor
tithe (or its cash equivalent) given to the needy (Deut. 14:28-29. 26:12).
During the period of the kings, civil tithes were also exacted. Although
tithing was obligatory only in the Land of Israel, the custom arose
among Jews in the diaspora so allocate a tenth of their income to charity.[back]
When
giving charity and determining the recommended 10%, does one base it
on the net income or gross income? (submitted by
Paige Kluger)
The ten-percent is generally interpreted as one-tenth of net income
after payment of taxes. People dependent on public assistance or living
on the edge of subsistence may give less; no one should give so much
that he might become a public burden. [back]
I
am totally ignorant about the way Jewish religion approaches the afterlife
and what happens after death to body and soul. Can you please give me
some ideas/suggested readings? What is the modern interpretation of
"afterlife?" (questions submitted by Joan Dickstein
and others)
The
Jewish attitude regarding what occurs after the death of the body has
changed through Jewish history. The bible relates to a she'ol
a Hades-like underworld (Psalms 115:17, I Samuel 28). Later, various
new concepts developed in response to intellectual influences from Persia
and Greece: the issue of reward and punishment after death, for example,
gained in importance during the Second Temple period. The Pharisees
espoused a belief in a bodily resurrection after death (as did Jesus),
a view opposed by the Sadducees.
Many beliefs related to the immortality of the soul crystallized during
periods of persecution (for example, in the period of the Maccabean
revolt, 2nd cent.). Maimonides (12th cent.) struggled with the concept
of bodily resurrection (he defended himself against the accusation that
he denied it, and did include it in his Thirteen Principles of Faith).
The kabbalists developed a theory of gilgul (transmigration of
the soul), which was rejected by non-kabbalistic orthodoxy.
Many Enlightenment and post-Enlightenment thinkers reinterpreted the
concept of immortality in metaphorical terms. For example, Herman Cohen
has written that afterlife is "the historical living on of the individual
in the historical continuity of the people." (Religion of Reason p.
301)
.
Suggested reading:
 Neil Gillman, "The Death of Death,"
published by Jewish Lights [back]
What
is the significance of placing small stones on headstones or graves in
Jewish cemeteries? When and why did this start? (submitted by Lital Miller)
Although
this custom is very common, little has been written about it. It may date
back to biblical days when individuals were buried under piles of stones.
Today, they are left as tokens that people have been there to visit and
to remember.
The custom of decorating
graves with flowers was strongly opposed by rabbis for many centuries,
based on the talmudic rules that "whatever belongs to the dead and
his grave may not be used for the benefit of the living" and probably
also because they regarded this custom as an imitation of pagan customs.
It became popular
for Jews to place stones on graves: simply as a replacement for flowers.
The use of stones may possibly based on the early belief (also alluded
to in the Talmud) that souls continue to dwell for a while in the graves
in which they are placed, and placing the stones insure that they "stay
put."
Other possible explanation:
- Stones are an
equalizer: everyone is economically equal in death and placing a stone
was considered less ostentatious than using flowers.
- Stones and pebbles
represent permanence; the placing of stones suggests the permanence
of memory, as opposed to the quick fading and passing of flowers.
[Note: It has become
acceptable, nonetheless, to tend gardens around Jewish gravestones. In
addition, despite the centuries-long opposition to placing flowers, it
has become quite common in Israel to place flower wreaths on gravestones,
particularly in military cemeteries.][back]
I
bought a HAMSA for an American friend but I wasn't able to explain
the whole "story" behind it.
The
open palm of the hand is a response to the belief in the evil eye and
the effective defense against it. It is almost exclusively confined to
Islamic countries (from Iran to Morocco) where it is known as hamsa
(Arabic for "five") or the "hand of Fatima" (Fatima
was the daughter of the prophet Muhammed). The magical qualities of the
open palm is probably based on the use of the hand as the primary weapon
against both physical and supernatural enemies; as a defensive physical
gesture, raising the hand such serves also to ward off the evil spirits.
In Arabic, the phrase hamsa fi 'einak (five [fingers] in your eyes)
is used-with or without the amulet-when one feels threatened by the evil
eye.
Among Musims the hamsa was suspended above doors, included in wall
painings of private dwellings, incorporated in architecture and cuphangers.
Jews living in Muslim lands shared the belief in magic with their neighbors
and adopted the use of this defensive amulet against it.
In our century the hamsa has infiltrated areas where it was previously
unknown. Hamsa amulets are produced in all Muslim countries and
are used extensively by people who believe in their apotropaic powers
as well as by those who simply find their shape quaint and attractive.[back]
Can Cohanim trace their genealogy from Aaron to now? (question
submitted by Neil Bernard Katzman)
It's
not that they can actually trace it, but that they claim that they are
descendants of.... There is no actual recorded lineage (A, son of B, son
of C, etc.). However, recently genetic researchers in Israel conducted
a study which indicated that people who have the Cohen last name (or variant
hereof) do seem to be genetically "closer" to each other, than
those who don't share this name. While this does not prove that they are
in fact descendants of the original Cohanim, it does reinforce the idea
that they share a common ancestry.
The
Torah reading in Torah portion Tsav referred to col zachar becohanim
- all the males from the priests. Does this not assume that there were
female priests?
While
there is no indication in Jewish sources that women in the priestly families
actually served in the sanctuary or Temple, they were considered part
of the priestly tribe. They enjoyed some of the privileges of the priesthood,
e.g. eating the terumah and sacrifices, and lost these privileges
if they married "outside"; a woman from a non-priestly family
who married a cohen also had the right to eat terumah etc.
There is much discussion in the Mishna and Talmud regarding whether, in
the case of daughters of priestly families who divorce or are widowed
and return to their father's home, these privileges are reinstated. [back]
Why
do Cohanim (descendents of the ancient priests) have to leave the
synagogue during certain prayers on Yom Kippur. Why do they face east
during other prayers? (submitted by Karyn Young)
In
general the Cohanim participate in the entire service on Yom Kippur
(and throughout the year) with the entire congregation. The only exception
is the priestly blessing, which is recited during the Musaf (additional)
service on the major festivals in traditional Diaspora synagogues (and
daily in Israel). The Cohanim leave the service shortly before
the blessing in order to wash their hands and change leather shoes for
slippers. The Levites leave with them, to assist in the hand-washing ceremony.
When the Cohanim return, they stand in the front of the synagogue
facing the ark (eastward - in the direction of Jerusalem (when it is time
for them to recite the blessing, they turn to face the congregation. [back]
Are
there modern Hebrew kinnot for Yom ha-Shoah ve'ha-Gevurah? Other
than David Roskies' Nightwords, what other Holocaust liturgies have been
written? What liturgical elements have been adopted for Yom ha-Shoah in
synagogues of the different movements?
As
far as JHOM is aware, no fixed liturgical framework has been created for
Holocaust Memorial Day. Each committee or spiritual leader planning a
memorial ceremony chooses poems, memoirs, testimonies, and Psalms; there
are several Psalms which particularly lend themselves to a Yom ha-Shoah
remembrance (see, for example, Psalm 83). If any of our readers is aware
of any such material we'd be happy to hear
from you. [back]
How
can we keep the memory of Holocaust alive for future generations when
the "witnesses" have passed on? (submitted
by Nita Barbanell)
Although
maintaining the memory of the Holocaust for future generations is a genuine
cause for concern, many survivors have left/are leaving written and recorded
memoirs that will help in the task. In addition, it is important to continue
supporting and developing new and existing Holocaust memorials and museums.
Art, literature, movies, internet sites and other media are also vital
for maintaining a "live" memory that does not wither with time.
Annual memorial observances (see below) give many communities a regular
opportunity to deal with Holocaust memories and may prove to be a critical
element in maintaining the memory as time progresses.
I
am on the Yom Hashoah (Holocaust Memorial Day) Committe in my Jewish
Center. This year, we are interested in presenting information about Righteous
Gentiles and/or concentration camp liberators. Do you happen to know where
we might find information on maybe a few Righteous Gentiles we could talk
about, about their lives, where they lived, who they were, what happened
to them? The same with any specific camp liberators. (submitted
by Rachel Seliber)
We
suggest you check the following websites:
Museums:US
Holocaust Museum; Yad
Vashem
Liberators: Liberators'
Testimony; 157th
Regiment Page
Righteous Gentiles: "Whoever
saves a single life"; Yad
VaShem
I
am an beginning student of Talmud, which means I have taken a JTS Lehrhaus,
have read two books by Judith Abrams, Boyarin's Carnal Israel, and spent
a day with Rav Steinsaltz 5 years ago. I bought the vol. 1 of the Talmud
Baba Metsia, thinking I could now dive in... and I got lost in the most
Talmudic of Talmudic texts. Can you suggest a starting place in Baba Metsia,
a conceptual approach to ownership, lost property and an answer to the
big question... in 1998, who cares and why?
When
a person not versed in Talmudic thinking firsts confronts the sea of Talmud,
the experience can be both overwhelming and quite off-putting for several
reasons:
Rabbinic
modes of thought are quite different than modern Western ones.
The Talmud
as it is written assumes the person approaching it has a certain background
about Judaism, both in knowledge and practice.
Talmud
study has always been a social and religious experience, within the context
of a particular milieu, quite different from solitary study or even our
modern academic style of study.
We've
compiled a list of modern books
that may help you address points 1 and 2.
As for point 3, the fact is the Rabbis would have been surprised by the
very idea of trying to study Talmud alone. Solitary study is a very modern
approach. We would encourage you to find a mentor to study with, or at
least a partner, if this is at all feasible for you. JHOM.com plans to
offer distance-learning Talmud study in the near future, which, while
not quite as good as human interaction, can at least help somewhat.
Finally, as to why anyone in 1998 should care, we give first the traditional
answer: study of religious text is a mitzvah - a religious commandment.
In fact, a Rabbinic saying states that study is a mitzvah equal
in weight to all the other mitzvot. Translating this into something
a modern reader can understand: the study of sacred texts can help us
confront and provide guidelines for many important ethical and spiritual
issues which arise in day-to-day life. When you get past the cultural
gap and enter the world of rabbinic thinking in the tractate you mention,
you will find much wisdom and guidance on issues of business ethics including
contractual relationships, management-labor relationships, and the like.
There is much we can learn and adopt, even today.[back]
I
am the father of two daughters and I remember reading a few years ago
about Birkat ha-Levanah, a lunar holiday that has taken on additional
meaning within a contemporary women's perspective. Can you point me in
the direction of good reference materials on this celebration?
Birkat
ha-Levanah (levana, from the word lavan meaning white,
is another name for moon, besides yare'ah) is actually a blessing recited
during the period of the moon's waxing following Rosh Hodesh (the New
Moon). I believe what you are asking about is Rosh Hodesh itself, the
beginning of the Hebrew month.
During the period of the First Temple, Rosh Hodesh was regarded as a semi-festival
(possibly the continuation of an ancient moon-festival). According to
rabbinic legend, when the Israelites were at Mount Sinai, women refused
to join their husbands in building the golden calf, and as a reward, God
made Rosh Hodesh a special day for women.
Since the early 1970s, growing numbers of Jewish women have rediscovered
the new moon's special significance and found ways to celebrate rebirth
and renewal of women in the context of the lunar cycle; womens' prayer
groups, study sessions, and naming ceremonies for baby daughters are often
held on this day.
Here are a few new books you may find interesting:
Celebrating
the New Moon: The Rosh Hodesh Anthology ed. Susan Berrin - a comprehensive
anthology covering many topics related to women and Rosh Hodesh (Jason
Aronson, 1996).
Miriam's Well, Penina Adelman - ceremonies, personal reflections,
stories for each Rosh Hodesh around the year (publ. Biblio, NY).
Lifecycles, Vol. 1, ed. Deborah Orenstein - a collection of new
rituals for women, including Rosh Hodesh (publ. Jewish Lights). [back]
What
is the significance of grapes and vines as it relates to Tu Bi'Shevat?
Firstly,
you can read in detail about the holiday of Tu bi'Shevat (new year of
the trees) in our Calendar section. The connection between grapes/vines
and Tu bi'Shevat is rather weak, but we can find one.
It is customary to celebrate this day by eating fruit from the Land of
Israel. As grapes are one of the seven species of the Land of Israel,
it is possible that some people eat grapes, although carob, figs and dates
are more common. Another possible connection is the tradition which emerged
in the 17th century (partly under the influence of the mystics) of holding
a special seder (order service) modeled on the Passover seder;
at this Tu bi'shevat seder four cups of wine are drunk, with varying
percentages of red and white wine, representing perhaps the shifting of
yearly seasons.[back]
I
have often been told that Pesach (Passover) is the beginning
of the Jewish yearly cycle. What I have not been able to find is an
answer as to a question I am often asked - when and why Rosh HaShana
(New Year) became the Jewish "New Year"? (question
submitted by Alice Fisher)
Yes,
the Torah clearly states that the Exodus from Egypt and the Passover
holiday occur in the first month of the year (Exodus 12:2), now called
Nisan. The holiday now celebrated as Rosh Hashanah, the New Year,
appears in the Torah as Yom HaZicharon (Day of Remembrance) (Lev.
23:23-25) and as Yom Tru'ah (Day of the Trumpet Blast (Num. 29:1-6).
There is no explicit reference to a New Year Festival in the Hebrew
Bible.
We do not have any
specific reference to a decision or legislation that establishes a New
Year festival or changes the beginning of the year from spring to fall.
The best we can do is to narrow the period in which the transition must
have taken place. Although some scholars have suggested that the change
took place after the Babylonian exile, the post-exilic books of the
Bible (for example, Nehemia 8:1, 9:1) and First and Second
of Maccabees (written approx. 100 BCE) still refer to the Day of
Remembrance as being in the seventh month. Approximately two hundred
years later, Josephus Flavius (Jewish historian who wrote in Greek in
the first century of the Common Era) refers to a religious calendar
that begins in spring (Passover) and a civil calendar that begins in
fall.
By the time the
Mishna was finalized (approx. 200 CE) Rosh Hashanah, as celebrated today,
was an existing fact. The first historical quotation in the Babylonian
Talmud that refers to Rosh Hashanah is attributed to R. Yohanan ben
Zakkai, after the destruction of the Temple in 73 CE. Scholars' best
estimate is that Rosh Hashanah became the Jewish New Year during the
second century of the Common Era. Unfortunately, as the sources do not
state the reasoning behind their assertions, we do not know why the
change was made. [Adapted from: "At What Time in Jewish History
Did Rosh Hashanah Begin on the First of Tishri," Jerome Brem, Conservative
Judaism, XLVIII:4, Summer 1996] [back]
I would like to know more information on how the Jewish community in
Britain copes with living in secular Britain. (submitted
by Hannah Nelson)
JHOM.
doesn't have any specific information about the Jewish community in
Britain but we think that the following web sites might be able to help
or lead you to someone who can answer you question. http://www.brijnet.org
or http://www.jewishnet.org.uk/jac.html
In addition, readers of jhom.com might be interested in "Jewish Communities
of the World" at http://www.virtual.co.il/communities/wjcbook/vjworldindex.htm
which provides basic information most, if not all, present-day Jewish
communities.
In the near future,
we will be initiating a Readers' Exchange section, where readers can
post general inquiries and receive responses from fellow readers. We
will add your question when it is installed. [back]
What
does Mazal Tov mean? (submitted by P.G. Alexander)
Mazal
Tov literally means "Good Luck" but is used as "Congratulations."[back]
What
is the Jewish place of worship?
In
Hebrew, a Jewish place of worship is Beit Knesset, which means "house
of assembly." The most common English words used are "synagogue," derived
from a Greek root meaning "assembly" and a "temple," which recalls the
Temple in Jerusalem that was the center of Jewish worship in biblical
times. [back]
Do
Jewish women cut their hair? Is there any such custom that forbids them
to cut their hair according to the bible? (submitted
by Sherri)
Yes, Jewish women
cut their hair. It appears that women in ancient Israel generally grew
their hair long and let it fall down to their shoulders. Isaiah's description
of the hairstyles of the women of Jerusalem indicates that they also wore
it gathered, or in plaits as gathered and rolled into a knot at the back
of the head, or in plaits ( Mesopotamian style) (Isaiah 3:24). At the
same time, it was customary in biblical times for women to cover their
heads with veils or scarves, as a sign of chastity and modesty. The unveiling
of a woman's hair was considered a humiliation and punishment (as in the
case of adultery. (Isa, 3: 17: Num, 5:18; III Macc, 4:6; and Sus, 32).
More information may be found in the www.jhom.com edition on "Hair."
[back]
Will
a Conservative Rabbi marry a Jewish man and a Jewish woman if one is Conservative
and the other Reform? Both are children of two Jewish parents and have
been brought up Jewish? (submitted by Carolyn Friedman)
A
Conservative rabbi will marry a Jewish man and Jewish woman if both are
born of two Jewish parents, have been brought up as Jewish and are unmarried
by Jewish law. Synagogue or denominational affiliation is not a consideration.
However, some Rabbis officiate only at marriages when one of the partners
(or their parents) is a member of their congregation. The reason for this
is not religious but rather a matter of professional courtesy (not taking
"work" from a colleague). [back]
What
is the tradition behind wearing a yarmulke? (submitted
by David Wein)
Wearing
a yarmulke (or any other head covering) it is not a mitzvah (commandment)
and no blessing recited when putting it on one's head. The Torah requires
a head covering only for the High Priest. When the Pharisees taught that
each person is like a priest to God and each table an altar, the custom
of wearing a head covering was transferred to ordinary people as a means
of expressing awareness of, and respect for God.
The Talmud
tells us that Rav Huna (a Palestinian sage who lived in the 4th century,
C.E.) never walked four amot (approximately six feet) with his
head uncovered. When asked why, he replied, "Because the Divine Presence
rests above my head." (Kiddushin 31a). From the fact that
Rav Huna was asked why he always covered his head, we learn that a head
covering was not customary in his community. Rav Huna's reasoning became
the most common explanation for Jewish head coverings. The Talmud (Shabbat
15b) says: Cover your head so that awe of heaven will be upon you."
The custom
of wearing a head covering grew slowly. Originally, it was worn for prayer,
religious study and while eating (because of the blessing related to the
meal). By the 1500's, it was universally accepted among Jews as the proper
dress throughout the day.
In modern
times, wearing a yarmulke has become distinguishing sign of traditional
and other Jews who wish to make strong statement of identity. Today, some
Jews cover their heads throughout the day others while praying, studying
sacred texts, and eating; others not at all.
The "yarmulke"
word itself has been explained as being derived yireh melekh (fear
or awe of the King). [back]
What are the "rules" for making a talit?
(submitted by Beth Katcher)
A
talit (pl. talitot) is a garment worn by Jews during morning
services, in fulfillment of the commandment stated in Numbers 15:37-47.
Tassels made of four doubled threads, tied in a special pattern, are placed
on each corner. There are two forms of talit: a large talit
worn during morning services and on a few other ritual occasions and a
small one, worn like an undershirt under one's clothing. Both types are
usually purchased in stores specializing in Jewish ritual objects, although
handmade talitot have become more common in recent years.
A talit is
usually made of wool, silk or rayon although other fabrics may be used
if they are not "shatnez," fabric woven of linen and
woolen that is forbidden by the Torah (Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy
12:11). The thread for making the tzitzit (tassel or fringe) is
spun especially for this purpose. The threads may be made from the same
fiber as the garment or from wool. Woolen tzitzit may be used on
all fabrics (except linen). Each fringe is made of four threads, three
of the same length and one longer. When the three threads are folded in
half, the fourth is thread aligned with them so that all of the "excess"
is on one side.
It is customary to
reinforce the corners of the talit both in order to demarcate the
"corner" and also in strengthen the fabric. A hole is made approximately
two inches from the corner and a set of four threads is passed through
it. A double knot is tied and the longer thread wrapped around the others
several times and another double knot is tied. This procedure is repeated
until there are five double knots. There are several traditions regarding
the number times that the longer thread is wrapped around the others.
The most common Ashkenazic custom is to have seven, eight, eleven and
thirteen windings in each group. The total number of windings is 39, which
equals the numerical value of the Hebrew phrase meaning "God is One."
A Sephardic custom is to have ten, five, six and five windings in each
group, representing the numerical value of letters in God's ineffable
name. The knots and windings comprise approximately one-third of the completed
tassel.
Many talitot
have additional, decorative fringes. Another decorative addition to large
talitot is the atarah (collar, lit., crown, pl. atarot).
Most often, the atarah is an embroidered fabric band, frequently
incorporating the text of the blessing recited when the talit is worn.
There are also silver atarot.[back]
At
the moment I am learning about anti-semitism. Do you think you could give
me any information? Thank you. (submitted by Lisa)
Anti-semitism
is a broad amd sensitive subject. You should be able to get a good start
by visiting the following sites:
Tel
Aviv University Institute for the Study of Anti-Semitism,
Anti-Defamation League, and Virtual
Jerusalem .[back]
Do
you have any material about the subject of choice (behira) in Judaism?
(submitted by Rivka Gurfinkel)
Free
choice or free will, the doctrine that people determine their own actions
and, therefore are morally responsible for them, becomes a philosophical
and religious problem in light of a belief in divine omniscience. The
Bible seems to presume free will (Deut. 30:19). In Second Temple days,
the different schools of thought in pre-Rabbinic Judaism each took a different
stand on this crucial subject. The Sadducees (consisting primarily of
the priests and upper class) denied divine providence and attributed everything
to chance. On the other extreme, the Dead Sea community ("ssenes)
attributed everything to predestination. The Pharisees (precursors of
Rabbinic Judaism) maintained both God's rule of the universe and human
free will by assigning each to its own realm. A classical statement of
their position is found in the Talmud: "Everything is in the hands
of God except for the fear of God. (TB Ber 33b)
David
Winston beautifully surveys this complex subject in his essay "Free
Will" (Contemporary Jewish Religious Thought, eds. Cohen &
Mendes-Flohr, Free Press, 1987. See also: Winston, The Wisdom of Solomon,
1979; Philo of Alexandria).[back]
What
are the Seven Wedding Blessings?
The
Seven Wedding Blessings are recited (together with the drinking of wine)
during the second half of the Jewish wedding ceremony. The same blessings
are also recited as part of the Grace after Meals at the wedding reception
and at festive meals which traditionally take place during the first
week of marriage. Either
the officiant or honored guests may recite these blessings.
-
Praised
are You, O Lord our God, King of the Universe, Creator of the fruit
of the vine.
-
Praised are You, O Lord our God, King of the Universe, who created
all things for your glory.
-
Praised are You, O Lord our God, King of the Universe, Creator of
humankind.
-
Praised are You, O Lord our God, King of the Universe, who created
man and woman in Your image, fashioning them as mates, that together
they might perpetuate life. Praised are You, O Lord, Creator of
humankind.
-
May Zion rejoice as her children are restored to her in joy. Praised
are You, O Lord, who causes Zion to rejoice at her children's return.
-
Grant perfect joy to these loving companions, as You did to the
first man and woman in the Garden of Eden. Praised are You, O Lord,
who grants the joy of bride and groom.
-
Praised are You, O Lord our God, King of the Universe, who created
joy and gladness, bride and groom, mirth, song, delight and rejoicing,
love and harmony, peace and companionship. O Lord our God, may there
ever be heard in the cities of Judah and in the streets of Jerusalem
voices of those joined in marriage under the bridal canopy, the
voices of young people feasting and singing. Praised are You, O
Lord, who causes the groom to rejoice with the bride. [back]
I
would like some information about customs (ceremonies or dances) performed
when marrying off one's youngest child at the wedding celebration? (submitted
by Arline Rein)
In
some Jewish communities a special dance is performed towards the end of
the reception, in honor of parents who have brought their last son or
daughter to the wedding canopy. The parents are seated on chairs in the
center of the dance floor. The guests dance around them, sometimes lavishing
them with flowers and kisses or crowning them with a wreath of flowers.
Frequently the dance is performed to a Yiddish song called, "The Youngest
Daughter is Given."
Readers who know of additional customs are invited to submit them via
the "Readers Exchange."
[back]
I
would like any information on Jewish life during the early Roman period
between 198BCE to 60CE. (submitted by Shaun Mabe)
During
most of this period, a majority of Jews lived in the land of Israel,
first under Seleucid Greek rule and later, after the Maccabean revolt,
in an independent Jewish country. Only in 63 BCE did Roman rule commence.
During this period,
most Jews lived in rural areas and worked in agriculture. Principle crops
were wheat, dates, figs, olives and grapesl oil, wine and spices were
also produced. Urban centers were developing and some people work in handicrafts
and commerce. The upper echelon of society enjoyed the luxuries of the
age and gradually adopted the Greek language and aspects of Hellenistic
culture.
Excerpts of later
Roman laws relating to the Jews and a short introduction on the subject
may be found on the Fordham
University site. [back]
I
am a Jew but recently a question has been bothering me. Why do we, Jews,
believe that Jesus was a liar? (submitted by David)
To
accept one belief system is not to say that another is a pack of lies;
there are many ways of understanding the world. We make choices given
our historical, familial and personal experiences. The tolerant person
will make those choices without labeling another way of thinking as a
lie. [back]
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